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In Two Worlds a Yup'ik Eskimo Family Lessons

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Exonym used to depict Ethnic people from the circumpolar region

Eskimo
Inuit conf map.png

Map of the Inuit Circumpolar Council of Eskimo peoples, showing the Yupik (Yup'ik, Siberian Yupik) and Inuit (Iñupiat, Inuvialuit, Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, Greenlandic Inuit)
Total population
183,500
Regions with significant populations
Russian federation
- Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
- Sakha (Yakutia)
United States
- Alaska
Canada
- Newfoundland and Labrador
- Northwest Territories
- Nunavut
- Quebec
- Yukon (formerly)
Greenland
Languages
Eskimo–Aleut (Aleut, Greenlandic, Inuktut, Yupik), Russian, English, French, Danish
Religion
Alaska Native religion, Inuit religion, Shamanism, Animism
Christianity (Russian Orthodox Church, Orthodox Church in America, Roman Catholicism, Anglican Church of Canada, Church of Denmark)
Related indigenous groups
Aleut

Eskimo ( ESS-kih-moh) or Eskimos is a term used to refer to ii closely related Ethnic peoples: The Inuit (including the Alaskan Iñupiat, the Greenlandic Inuit, and the Canadian Inuit) and the Yupik (or Yuit) of eastern Siberia and Alaska. A related third group, the Aleut, which inhabit the Aleutian Islands, are generally excluded from the definition of Eskimo. The three groups share a relatively contempo common ancestor, and speak related languages belonging to the Eskimo–Aleut language family.

These circumpolar peoples accept traditionally inhabited the Chill and subarctic regions from eastern Siberia (Russia) to Alaska (United States), Northern Canada, Nunavik, Nunatsiavut, and Greenland.

Many Inuit, Yupik, Aleut and other individuals consider the term Eskimo, which is of a disputed etymology, to exist unacceptable and fifty-fifty debasing.[1] [two] Eskimo continues to exist used inside an historical, linguistic, archaeological, and cultural context. The governments in Canada[3] [iv] [five] and the United states of america[6] [7] have made moves to finish using the term Eskimo in official documents, only information technology has not been entirely eliminated, as the word is in some places written into tribal, and therefore national, legal terminology.[viii] Canada officially uses the term Inuit to draw the indigenous Canadian people who are not Start Nations or Métis and living in the country'due south northern sectors.[three] [4] [9] [10] The United states of america government legally uses Alaska Native [7] for the Yupik, Inuit, and Aleut, but likewise for non-Eskimo indigenous Alaskans including the Tlingit, the Haida, the Eyak, and the Tsimshian, in addition to at least nine separate northern Athabaskan/Dene peoples. The designation Alaska Native applies to enrolled tribal members only,[11] in contrast to individual Eskimo/Aleut persons claiming descent from the globe's "well-nigh widespread aboriginal group".[12] [xiii] [14]

There are between 171,000 and 187,000 Inuit and Yupik people, the bulk of whom live in or near their traditional circumpolar regions. There are 53,785 (2010) people living in the The states, 65,025 (2016) in Canada, and 51,730 (2021) in Greenland. There are also 16,730 people living in Denmark who were born in Greenland and an unknown number of Siberians.[xv] [sixteen] [17] [18] The non-governmental organization (NGO) known as the Inuit Circumpolar Council claims to represent 180,000 people.[xix]

The not-Inuit sub-co-operative of the Eskimo branch of the Eskimo-Aleut language family consists of four singled-out Yupik languages, two of them are used in the Russian Far East as well as on St. Lawrence Island, and two of them are used in western Alaska, southwestern Alaska, and the western part of Southcentral Alaska. The extinct language of the Sirenik people is sometimes claimed to be related to these other languages.

Classification [edit]

Etymology [edit]

A variety of theories accept been postulated for the etymological origin of the word Eskimo.[20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [2] According to Smithsonian linguist Ives Goddard, etymologically the word derives from the Innu-aimun (Montagnais) word ayas̆kimew, meaning "a person who laces a snowshoe",[25] and is related to husky (a breed of canis familiaris).[26] [27] [25] [28] The give-and-take assime·w means "she laces a snowshoe" in Innu, and Innu language speakers refer to the neighbouring Mi'kmaq people using words that sound like eskimo.[29] [30]

In 1978, José Mailhot, a Quebec anthropologist who speaks Innu-aimun (Montagnais), published a newspaper suggesting that Eskimo meant "people who speak a different language".[31] [32] French traders who encountered the Innu (Montagnais) in the eastern areas adopted their discussion for the more western peoples and spelled information technology as Esquimau or Esquimaux in a transliteration.[33]

Some people consider Eskimo offensive, because it is popularly perceived to mean[25] [32] [34] [35] "eaters of raw meat" in Algonquian languages common to people along the Atlantic coast.[27] [36] [37] An unnamed Cree speaker suggested the original give-and-take that became corrupted to Eskimo might have been askamiciw (meaning "he eats it raw"); the Inuit are referred to in some Cree texts as askipiw (meaning "eats something raw").[36] [37] [38] [39] [3] [twoscore] Regardless, the term still carries a derogatory connotation for many Inuit and Yupik.[27] [36] [41] [42] [43]

One of the kickoff printed uses of the French word Esquimaux comes from Samuel Hearne's A Journey from Prince of Wales's Fort in Hudson's Bay to the Northern Ocean in the Years 1769, 1770, 1771, 1772 get-go published in 1795.[44]

Usage [edit]

The term Eskimo is yet used by people to encompass the Inuit and Yupik, as well every bit other Indigenous Alaskan and Siberian peoples.[26] [41] [45] In the 21st century, usage in Northward America has declined.[27] [42] Linguistic, ethnic, and cultural differences exist between Yupik and Inuit.

In Canada and Greenland, and to a certain extent in Alaska, the term Eskimo is predominantly seen as offensive and has been widely replaced by the term Inuit [27] [38] [39] [46] or terms specific to a particular group or customs.[27] [47] [48] This has resulted in a tendency whereby some Canadians and Americans believe that they should use Inuit fifty-fifty for Yupik who are a non-Inuit people.[49]

The Inuit of Greenland generally refer to themselves every bit Greenlanders ("Kalaallit" or "Grønlændere") and speak the Greenlandic linguistic communication and Danish.[27] [50] The Inuit of Greenland belong to three groups: the Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut;[50] the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic"); and the Inughuit of northward Greenland, who speak Inuktun.

The word "Eskimo" is a racially charged term in Canada.[51] [52] In Canada's Central Chill, Inuinnaq is the preferred,[53] and in the eastern Canadian Arctic Inuit. The language is often called Inuktitut, though other local designations are too used.

Section 25[54] of the Canadian Lease of Rights and Freedoms and section 35[55] of the Canadian Constitution Act of 1982 recognized the Inuit every bit a distinctive group of Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Although Inuit can be applied to all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, that is not true in Alaska and Siberia. In Alaska, the term Eskimo is still used (has been commonly used merely is decreasing in prevalence) because it includes both Iñupiat (singular: Iñupiaq), who are Inuit, and Yupik, who are not.[27]

Alaskans also use the term Alaska Native, which is inclusive of (and nether U.S. and Alaskan law, also as the linguistic and cultural legacy of Alaska, refers to) all Indigenous peoples of Alaska,[56] including not simply the Iñupiat (Alaskan Inuit) and the Yupik, only as well groups such as the Aleut, who share a recent ancestor, as well as the largely unrelated[57] ethnic peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast and the Alaskan Athabaskans, such as the Eyak people. The term Alaska Native has important legal usage in Alaska and the rest of the The states as a consequence of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Deed of 1971. It does not apply to Inuit or Yupik originating exterior the state. As a outcome, the term Eskimo is still in use in Alaska.[58] [26] Alternative terms, such equally Inuit-Yupik, take been proposed,[59] but none has gained widespread acceptance. Recent (early 21st century) population estimates registered more than than 135,000 individuals of Eskimo descent, with approximately 85,000 living in North America, 50,000 in Greenland, and the rest residing in Siberia.[26]

Inuit Circumpolar Quango [edit]

In 1977, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference (ICC) meeting in Utqiaġvik, Alaska, officially adopted Inuit every bit a designation for all circumpolar Native peoples, regardless of their local view on an appropriate term. They voted to supplant the word Eskimo with Inuit.[60] Even at that time, such a designation was not accepted by all.[27] [33] As a result, the Canadian government usage has replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit (Inuk in atypical).

The ICC charter defines Inuit as including "the Inupiat, Yupik (Alaska), Inuit, Inuvialuit (Canada), Kalaallit (Greenland) and Yupik (Russian federation)".[61] Despite the ICC'south 1977 decision to prefer the term Inuit, this was never accustomed past the Yupik and others as they are proud of the term Eskimo.[60]

In 2010, the ICC passed a resolution in which they implored scientists to use Inuit and Paleo-Inuit instead of Eskimo or Paleo-Eskimo.[62]

Bookish response [edit]

In a 2015 commentary in the journal Arctic, Canadian archaeologist Max Friesen argued swain Arctic archaeologists should follow the ICC and utilise Paleo-Inuit instead of Paleo-Eskimo.[63] In 2016, Lisa Hodgetts and Arctic editor Patricia Wells wrote: "In the Canadian context, continued employ of any term that incorporates Eskimo is potentially harmful to the relationships between archaeologists and the Inuit and Inuvialuit communities who are our hosts and increasingly our research partners."

Hodgetts and Wells suggested using more specific terms when possible (e.g., Dorset and Groswater) and agreed with Frieson in using the Inuit tradition to replace Neo-Eskimo, although they noted replacement for Palaeoeskimo was still an open question and discussed Paleo-Inuit, Chill Small Tool Tradition, and pre-Inuit, as well as Inuktitut loanwords like Tuniit and Sivullirmiut, as possibilities.[64]

In 2020, Katelyn Braymer-Hayes and colleagues argued in the Journal of Anthropological Archæology that there is a "clear need" to supervene upon the terms Neo-Eskimo and Paleo-Eskimo, citing the ICC resolution, but finding a consensus within the Alaskan context particularly is hard, since Alaska Natives practise not use the discussion Inuit to describe themselves nor is the term legally applicative only to Iñupiat and Yupik in Alaska, and as such, terms used in Canada similar Paleo Inuit and Ancestral Inuit would not be adequate.[65]

American linguist Lenore Grenoble has as well explicitly deferred to the ICC resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to the language branch.[66] [67]

History [edit]

Genetic bear witness suggests that the Americas were populated from northeastern Asia in multiple waves. While the swell majority of indigenous American peoples tin can exist traced to a unmarried early on migration of Paleo-Indians, the Na-Dené, Inuit and Indigenous Alaskan populations exhibit admixture from distinct populations that migrated into America at a later date and are closely linked to the peoples of far northeastern Asia (e.g. Chukchi), and only more remotely to the majority indigenous American type. For modern Eskimo–Aleut speakers, this later ancestral component makes up almost half of their genomes.[68] The aboriginal Paleo-Eskimo population was genetically singled-out from the modernistic circumpolar populations, but eventually derives from the same far northeastern Asian cluster.[69] Information technology is understood that some or all of these ancient people migrated beyond the Chukchi Ocean to North America during the pre-neolithic era, somewhere effectually 5,000 to 10,000 years ago.[lxx] It is believed that ancestors of the Aleut people inhabited the Aleutian Concatenation 10,000 years ago.[71]

The earliest positively identified Paleo-Eskimo cultures (Early Paleo-Eskimo) appointment to 5,000 years ago.[69] Several before indigenous peoples existed in the northern circumpolar regions of eastern Siberia, Alaska, and Canada (although probably not in Greenland).[72] The Paleo-Eskimo peoples appear to take developed in Alaska from people related to the Arctic small tool tradition in east asia, whose ancestors had probably migrated to Alaska at least 3,000 to 5,000 years earlier.[73]

The Yupik languages and cultures in Alaska evolved in place, beginning with the original pre-Dorset Indigenous culture adult in Alaska. At least iv,000 years agone, the Unangan culture of the Aleut became singled-out. It is non generally considered an Eskimo civilization. However, there is some possibility of an Aleutian origin of the Dorset people,[69] who in turn are a likely ancestor of Inuit and Yupik people today.[70]

Approximately one,500 to two,000 years ago, apparently in northwestern Alaska, two other distinct variations appeared. Inuit language became distinct and, over a period of several centuries, its speakers migrated across northern Alaska, through Canada, and into Greenland. The distinct culture of the Thule people (drawing strongly from the Birnirk civilisation) developed in northwestern Alaska. It very quickly spread over the entire surface area occupied past Eskimo peoples, though it was not necessarily adopted by all of them.[74]

Languages [edit]

Linguistic communication family [edit]

The Eskimo–Aleut family of languages includes two cognate branches: the Aleut (Unangan) co-operative and the Eskimo co-operative.[75]

The number of cases varies, with Aleut languages having a greatly reduced case arrangement compared to those of the Eskimo subfamily. Eskimo–Aleut languages possess voiceless plosives at the bilabial, coronal, velar and uvular positions in all languages except Aleut, which has lost the bilabial stops only retained the nasal. In the Eskimo subfamily a voiceless alveolar lateral fricative is besides present.

The Eskimo sub-family consists of the Inuit linguistic communication and Yupik language sub-groups.[76] The Sirenikski language, which is virtually extinct, is sometimes regarded equally a third co-operative of the Eskimo linguistic communication family unit. Other sources regard it as a grouping belonging to the Yupik branch.[76] [77]

Inuit languages contain a dialect continuum, or dialect concatenation, that stretches from Unalakleet and Norton Sound in Alaska, beyond northern Alaska and Canada, and east to Greenland. Changes from western (Iñupiaq) to eastern dialects are marked by the dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features, increasing consonant assimilation (due east.thousand., kumlu, meaning "thumb", changes to kuvlu, changes to kublu, changes to kulluk, changes to kulluq,[78]) and increased consonant lengthening, and lexical change. Thus, speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand ane another, simply speakers from dialects distant from each other on the dialect continuum would accept difficulty understanding one another.[77] Seward Peninsula dialects in western Alaska, where much of the Iñupiat culture has been in place for possibly less than 500 years, are greatly affected past phonological influence from the Yupik languages. Eastern Greenlandic, at the reverse end of the Inuit range, has had significant word replacement due to a unique form of ritual name abstention.[76] [77]

Ethnographically, Inuit of Greenland vest to three groups: the Kalaallit of westward Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut;[fifty] the Tunumiit of Tunu (east Greenland), who speak Tunumiit oraasiat ("East Greenlandic"), and the Inughuit of north Greenland, who speak Inuktun.

The four Yupik languages, by contrast, including Alutiiq (Sugpiaq), Central Alaskan Yup'ik, Naukan (Naukanski), and Siberian Yupik, are distinct languages with phonological, morphological, and lexical differences. They demonstrate limited mutual intelligibility.[76] Additionally, both Alutiiq and Central Yup'ik have considerable dialect diversity. The northernmost Yupik languages – Siberian Yupik and Naukan Yupik – are linguistically only slightly closer to Inuit than is Alutiiq, which is the southernmost of the Yupik languages. Although the grammatical structures of Yupik and Inuit languages are like, they accept pronounced differences phonologically. Differences of vocabulary between Inuit and whatever one of the Yupik languages are greater than between any ii Yupik languages.[77] Even the dialectal differences within Alutiiq and Central Alaskan Yup'ik sometimes are relatively great for locations that are relatively close geographically.[77]

Despite the relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates dorsum to 1732. While Naukan is only spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate between ii Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Cardinal Yup'ik Eskimo.[79]

The Sirenikski linguistic communication is sometimes regarded as a tertiary branch of the Eskimo language family, but other sources regard it equally a grouping belonging to the Yupik branch.[77]

Distribution of language variants across the Chill.

An overview of the Eskimo–Aleut languages family is given beneath:

Aleut
Aleut language
Western-Central dialects: Atkan, Attuan, Unangan, Bering (lx–eighty speakers)
Eastern dialect: Unalaskan, Pribilof (400 speakers)
Eskimo (Yup'ik, Yuit, and Inuit)
Yupik
Central Alaskan Yup'ik (10,000 speakers)
Alutiiq or Pacific Gulf Yup'ik (400 speakers)
Primal Siberian Yupik or Yuit (Chaplinon and St Lawrence Island, 1,400 speakers)
Naukan (700 speakers)
Inuit or Inupik (75,000 speakers)
Iñupiaq (northern Alaska, 3,500 speakers)
Inuvialuktun (western Canada; together with Siglitun, Natsilingmiutut, Inuinnaqtun and Uummarmiutun 765 speakers)
Inuktitut (eastern Canada; together with Inuktun and Inuinnaqtun, 30,000 speakers)
Kalaallisut (Greenlandic (Greenland, 47,000 speakers)
Inuktun (Avanersuarmiutut, Thule dialect or Polar Eskimo, approximately 1,000 speakers)
Tunumiit oraasiat (East Greenlandic known as Tunumiisut, three,500 speakers)
Sirenik Eskimo language (Sirenikskiy) (extinct)

American linguist Lenore Grenoble has explicitly deferred to this resolution and used Inuit–Yupik instead of Eskimo with regards to the language branch.[66]

Words for snow [edit]

There has been a long-running linguistic debate about whether or not the speakers of the Eskimo-Aleut language group have an unusually large number of words for snow. The general modern consensus is that, in multiple Eskimo languages, there are, or have been in simultaneous usage, indeed l plus words for snow.[eighty]

Diet [edit]

Sharing of frozen, anile walrus meat. The Inuit are known for their practice of food sharing, where big catches of food are shared with the broader community.[81]

Historically Inuit cuisine, which is taken hither to include Greenlandic cuisine, Yup'ik cuisine and Aleut cuisine, consisted of a diet of animal source foods that were fished, hunted, and gathered locally. In the 20th century the Inuit diet began to change and by the 21st century the diet was closer to a Western diet. Later hunting, they often honour the animals' spirit past singing songs and performing rituals. Although traditional or state foods still play an important office in the identity of Inuit, much food is purchased from the store, which has led to health bug and nutrient insecurity.[82] [83]

According to Edmund Searles in his article "Nutrient and the Making of Modern Inuit Identities", they consume this blazon of diet because a by and large meat nutrition is "effective in keeping the body warm, making the body strong, keeping the trunk fit, and fifty-fifty making that body good for you".[84]

Inuit [edit]

Not to be dislocated with the Innu, a First Nations people in eastern Quebec and Labrador.

The Inuit inhabit the Arctic and northern Bering Sea coasts of Alaska in the U.s., and Chill coasts of the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Quebec, and Labrador in Canada, and Greenland (associated with Denmark). Until adequately recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, marine mammals, and land animals for food, heat, calorie-free, clothing, and tools. Their food sources primarily relied on seals, whales, whale blubber, walrus, and fish, all of which they hunted using harpoons on the ice.[26] Clothing consisted of robes fabricated of wolfskin and reindeer skin to acclimate to the low temperatures.[85] They maintain a unique Inuit culture.

Greenland's Inuit [edit]

Greenlandic Inuit make upwardly xc% of Greenland'due south population.[sixteen] They belong to 3 major groups:

  • Kalaallit of west Greenland, who speak Kalaallisut
  • Tunumiit of east Greenland, who speak Tunumiisut
  • Inughuit of northward Greenland, who speak Inuktun or Polar Eskimo.[50]

Canadian Inuit [edit]

Canadian Inuit live primarily in Inuit Nunangat (lit. "lands, waters and ices of the [Inuit] people"), their traditional homeland although some people alive in southern parts of Canada. Inuit Nunangat ranges from the Yukon–Alaska border in the west across the Arctic to northern Labrador.

The Inuvialuit live in the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, the northern part of Yukon and the Northwest Territories, which stretches to the Amundsen Gulf and the Nunavut edge and includes the western Canadian Arctic Islands. The state was demarked in 1984 by the Inuvialuit Final Agreement.

The bulk of Inuit live in Nunavut (a territory of Canada), Nunavik (the northern part of Quebec) and in Nunatsiavut (the Inuit settlement region in Labrador).[15] [86] [87] [88]

Alaska's Iñupiat [edit]

The Iñupiat are the Inuit of Alaska's Northwest Arctic and North Gradient boroughs and the Bering Straits region, including the Seward Peninsula. Utqiaġvik, the northernmost city in the United States, is above the Arctic Circumvolve and in the Iñupiat region. Their language is known as Iñupiaq.[89] Their electric current communities include 34 villages across Iñupiat Nunaŋat (Iñupiaq lands) including 7 Alaskan villages in the Due north Slope Borough, affiliated with the Arctic Slope Regional Corporation; eleven villages in Northwest Arctic Civic; and 16 villages affiliated with the Bering Straits Regional Corporation.[90]

Yupik [edit]

Alutiiq dancer during the biennial "Celebration" cultural outcome

The Yupik are indigenous or aboriginal peoples who alive forth the coast of western Alaska, peculiarly on the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta and forth the Kuskokwim River (Central Alaskan Yup'ik); in southern Alaska (the Alutiiq); and forth the eastern declension of Chukotka in the Russian Far East and St. Lawrence Island in western Alaska (the Siberian Yupik).[91] The Yupik economy has traditionally been strongly dominated by the harvest of marine mammals, especially seals, walrus, and whales.[92]

Alutiiq [edit]

The Alutiiq language is relatively close to that spoken by the Yupik in the Bethel, Alaska area. But, it is considered a distinct linguistic communication with two major dialects: the Koniag dialect, spoken on the Alaska Peninsula and on Kodiak Island, and the Chugach dialect, spoken on the southern Kenai Peninsula and in Prince William Sound. Residents of Nanwalek, located on southern function of the Kenai Peninsula near Seldovia, speak what they call Sugpiaq. They are able to understand those who speak Yupik in Bethel. With a population of approximately iii,000, and the number of speakers in the hundreds, Alutiiq communities are working to revitalize their linguistic communication.[97]

Central Alaskan Yup'ik [edit]

Yup'ik, with an apostrophe, denotes the speakers of the Fundamental Alaskan Yup'ik linguistic communication, who live in western Alaska and southwestern Alaska from southern Norton Sound to the north side of Bristol Bay, on the Yukon–Kuskokwim Delta, and on Nelson Island. The use of the apostrophe in the name Yup'ik is a written convention to announce the long pronunciation of the p sound; but it is spoken the same in other Yupik languages. Of all the Alaska Native languages, Central Alaskan Yup'ik has the most speakers, with about x,000 of a total Yup'ik population of 21,000 yet speaking the language. The v dialects of Central Alaskan Yup'ik include General Fundamental Yup'ik, and the Egegik, Norton Sound, Hooper Bay-Chevak, and Nunivak dialects. In the latter 2 dialects, both the language and the people are called Cup'ik.[98]

Siberian Yupik [edit]

Siberian Yupik reside along the Bering Sea declension of the Chukchi Peninsula in Siberia in the Russian Far Due east[77] and in the villages of Gambell and Savoonga on St. Lawrence Isle in Alaska.[99] The Cardinal Siberian Yupik spoken on the Chukchi Peninsula and on St. Lawrence Isle is almost identical. About 1,050 of a full Alaska population of 1,100 Siberian Yupik people in Alaska speak the language. It is the first language of the domicile for most St. Lawrence Isle children. In Siberia, about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people yet learn and study the language, though it is no longer learned every bit a beginning language by children.[99]

Naukan [edit]

Almost 70 of 400 Naukan people notwithstanding speak Naukanski. The Naukan originate on the Chukot Peninsula in Chukotka Democratic Okrug in Siberia.[77] Despite the relatively small population of Naukan speakers, documentation of the language dates dorsum to 1732. While Naukan is but spoken in Siberia, the language acts as an intermediate betwixt two Alaskan languages: Siberian Yupik Eskimo and Central Yup'ik Eskimo.[79]

Sirenik Eskimos [edit]

Some speakers of Siberian Yupik languages used to speak an Eskimo variant in the by, before they underwent a language shift. These old speakers of Sirenik Eskimo language inhabited the settlements of Sireniki, Imtuk, and some small villages stretching to the west from Sireniki forth due south-eastern coasts of Chukchi Peninsula.[100] They lived in neighborhoods with Siberian Yupik and Chukchi peoples.

As early equally in 1895, Imtuk was a settlement with a mixed population of Sirenik Eskimos and Ungazigmit[101] (the latter belonging to Siberian Yupik). Sirenik Eskimo civilization has been influenced by that of Chukchi, and the language shows Chukchi language influences.[102] Folktale motifs also show the influence of Chuckchi civilisation.[103]

The higher up peculiarities of this (already extinct) Eskimo language amounted to mutual unintelligibility fifty-fifty with its nearest language relatives:[104] in the past, Sirenik Eskimos had to use the unrelated Chukchi language every bit a lingua franca for communicating with Siberian Yupik.[102]

Many words are formed from entirely different roots from in Siberian Yupik,[105] simply fifty-fifty the grammar has several peculiarities distinct not only among Eskimo languages, only fifty-fifty compared to Aleut. For example, dual number is not known in Sirenik Eskimo, while virtually Eskimo–Aleut languages have dual,[106] including its neighboring Siberian Yupikax relatives.[107]

Fiddling is known nigh the origin of this diversity. The peculiarities of this language may be the result of a supposed long isolation from other Eskimo groups,[108] [109] and beingness in contact only with speakers of unrelated languages for many centuries. The influence of the Chukchi linguistic communication is clear.[102]

Because of all these factors, the classification of Sireniki Eskimo language is not settled however:[110] Sireniki language is sometimes regarded every bit a third branch of Eskimo (at least, its possibility is mentioned).[110] [111] [112] Sometimes it is regarded rather as a group belonging to the Yupik branch.[113] [114]

See also [edit]

  • Eskimology
  • Alaska Native religion
  • Blond Eskimos
  • Disc number
  • Eskimo archery
  • Eskimo kinship
  • Eskimo kissing
  • Eskimo yo-yo
  • Inuit religion
  • Kudlik
  • Maupuk
  • Nanook of the North, 1922 documentary
  • Saqqaq civilisation

References [edit]

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Sources [edit]

  • Kaplan, Lawrence D. (1990). "The Language of the Alaskan Inuit" (PDF). In Dirmid R. F. Collis (ed.). Arctic Languages. An Awakening. Vendôme: UNESCO. pp. 131–158. ISBN92-iii-102661-5.
  • Menovshchikov, Georgy (= Г. А. Меновщиков) (1990). "Contemporary Studies of the Eskimo–Aleut Languages and Dialects: A Progress Study" (PDF). In Dirmid R. F. Collis (ed.). Arctic Languages. An Enkindling. Vendôme: UNESCO. pp. 69–76. ISBN92-3-102661-five.
  • Nuttall, Marker. Encyclopedia of the Arctic. New York: Routledge, 2005. ISBN 978-ane-57958-436-8.
  • Vakhtin, Nikolai (1998). "Endangered Languages in Northeast Siberia: Siberian Yupik and other Languages of Chukotka". In Erich Kasten (ed.). Bicultural Teaching in the North: Means of Preserving and Enhancing Indigenous Peoples' Languages and Traditional Noesis (PDF). Münster: Waxmann Verlag. pp. 159–173. ISBN978-three-89325-651-eight. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-04-13. Retrieved 2019-04-22 .
  • Alaska native language center. Inuit or Eskimo: Which name to apply? | Alaska Native Language Middle. (n.d.). Retrieved November xxx, 2021, from https://world wide web.uaf.edu/anlc/resources/inuit_or_eskimo.php.

Cyrillic [edit]

  • Menovshchikov, Georgy (1964). Язык сиреникских эскимосов. Фонетика, очерк морфологии, тексты и словарь [Language of Sireniki Eskimos. Phonetics, morphology, texts and vocabulary] (in Russian). Москва, Ленинград: Академия Наук СССР. Институт языкознания.

Further reading [edit]

  • Adapting to climate change: social-ecological resilience in a Canadian western arctic customs. Conservation Environmental 5(2)
  • Canadian Council on Learning, State of Inuit Learning in Canada
  • Contemporary Food Sharing: A Case Report from Akulivik, PQ. Canada.
  • Cyberspace Sacred Text Annal: Inuit Religion
  • Inuit Culture
  • Inuit Exposure to Organochlorines through the Aquatic Nutrient Chain. Environmental Health Perspectives 101(seven)
  • Inuit Women and Graphic Arts: Female Creativity and Its Cultural Context. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies 9(two)
  • We the People: American Indians and Alaska Natives in the Usa. Census 2000 Special Reports February 2006
  • University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Frank H. Nowell Photographs Photographs documenting scenery, towns, businesses, mining activities, Native Americans, and Eskimos in the vicinity of Nome, Alaska from 1901 to 1909.
  • University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Alaska and Western Canada Collection Images documenting Alaska and Western Canada, primarily Yukon and British Columbia, depicting scenes of the Gilded Rush of 1898, city street scenes, Eskimo and Native Americans of the region, hunting and fishing, and transportation.
  • University of Washington Libraries Digital Collections – Arthur Churchill Warner Photographs Includes images of Eskimos from 1898 to 1900.
  • Inuit Myopia

External links [edit]

External video
video icon Eskimo Hunters in Alaska - The Traditional Inuit Way of Life 1949 Documentary on Native Americans
  • Some Psychological Aspects of the Impact of the White Human upon the Labrador Eskimo Manuscript at Dartmouth College Library
  • The Traditional Labrador Eskimos (1960) Manuscript at Dartmouth Higher Library
  • Victor Levine Manuscripts on origins of the Eskimos at Dartmouth College Library

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eskimo

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